The War of 1812
A Geographic and Economic War of Choice
Let’s look at how geography and economics can create a war.
The War of 1812 is known by a few names; The war of 1812 (lower case), The Second American Revolution, and the American Invasion (by Canadians). It is a not a war that Americans tend to remember. Maybe it was because we didn’t win it. Or because the US was the aggressor and we don’t think of ourselves that way. In fact, the most many of us were taught about the war is that Andrew Jackson won the battle of New Orleans after the peace was signed. And that is usually a side note about President Jackson. But looking at the causes and outcomes of the War of 1812, we can see how both economics and geography are considered proximate causes.
It is hard now to understand what the participants were thinking in what was a war of choice. The war occurred (obviously) in 1812 and continued for about 2 1/2 years. The United States Congress was divided over the need for the war. Support split along party and geographic lines. The Democratic-Republican Party of the west and south supported the war, and the Federalist Party of New England traders and southern state agriculture exporters were strongly against war with Britain.
Origins
Economic Justifications
The immediate and one of the stated reasons for the war was the impressment of American citizens captured at sea. They were set to work on British Naval ships during the English – French Napoleonic wars. The warships needed staffing as the naval battles increased and both England and France declared trade with the enemy as enemy combatant and pressed captured seamen into service on their ships. These citizens would be released if they could prove they were United States citizens, a difficult proposition in the early 1800s. The default English position was that these men were British and were not Americans from the War of Independence.
After diplomatic measures and requests from the US government failed stop these actions, the US issued an embargo against all nations with the Embargo Act of 1807. This act was a failure. It hindered American trade with other nations and provided no benefit. The act divided Americans as both those manufacturing centers in New England and agricultural centers in the South protested the act. Trade with Europe in general and Britain in particular were key economic drivers of these regions economies.
The simmering conflict provided politicians in the United States cover for a war designed to redraw the national boundaries of parts of North America.
The new country of the United States was involved in skirmishes in what was then called “The Northwest Territories” - from Ohio west to the Mississippi River. This area had been part of the British territories, and American independence set expectations in the United States that this territory would be theirs. Great Britain, on the other hand, still had a presence in the regions.
Geographic Frustration
In 1803 the US purchased the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon in France. In fact it was the port of New Orleans that most interested the Americans because of the need for use at the port. But the transaction ceded vast tracks of land to the United States. The fact that the French really only ”controlled” New Orleans and a few forts along the Mississippi like St. Louis and Des Moines did not change the reality on the ground. Therefore the “purchase” was really a purchase of the right to take the land. The fact that Native Americans were already there was not important.
But it was important to the US because that those Northwest Territories were the linking land from the original 13 states to the new territory of Louisiana. The skirmishes over these lands became more critical to America.
The War was made possible, and thought winnable, because of England’s overextended military. England was engaged with Napoleon in France and on the Iberian Peninsula.
Cultural Factors
The other contributing factor to war was the “honor” of the American people. Britain was able to control the seas, dictate what and when American shipping was allowed. his was an affront to American independence. The visual of British Warships sitting outside of American ports, in view from land, was viewed as provocation by their ex-colonial rulers. That is why some scholars referred to the war as “The Second War of Independence.”
How did the war manifest itself?
We can start with the idea that neither side was ready for war.
Britain was at war with Napoleon on multiple fronts. They lacked naval personnel - which is why Americans were pressed into service when captured. Their military presence in Canada was reduced to a point where success was thought relatively easy.
As for American forces, at the time there was not a national military as we think of it now. The United States government depended on the state militias. Most of these were unprepared for war. Others, particularly in New England, refused to fight at all.
Therefore, the war began with a depleted England military and an inexperienced United States set of armies, set to face off on 3 fronts.
The land war was conducted in the Northwest Territories and “Upper Canada”. At the time Upper Canada was that portion of the country west of Quebec. Note: The Americans had no interest in conquering Lower Canada because the Catholics were not welcome in the US.
The war was fought not just between the US and British / Canadian Forces. The Native Americans fought as well and on both sides. One of the most powerful Native leaders was Tecumseh who lead a coalition of Native nations in the Northwest Territory against the US settlers. They fought with the British in that area and the Iroquois fought along side the British in the northeast of the country. The native people on both sides practiced what we now called guerrilla warfare, and it was very effective. Tecumseh’s forces took Fort Detroit and (what is now) Chicago in addition to the unsettled lands in the area.
The northern front and Mississippi River basin front were active, but neither force could claim a victory.
The war also took place in Florida between US and Spanish forces, both working in local Native tribes, the Creek and Seminole.
The most famous of battles of the War of 1812 (for Americans) was the burning of Washington DC by the British forces. But the British they could not consolidate their naval wins with gains on the ground.
Outcomes
Who Won? Canada. The war left Canada with secure borders and dashed any hopes of US expansion or confederation. It also provided sanctuary for those Colonists who supported Britain and had fled the US during the War of Independence.
Who tied? Both the United States and Great Britain came out with something they could claim as a win. Great Britain kept the provinces of Canada and expanded their control of the seas. Their honor was also upheld. The United States secured the Northwest Territories and the western gains from the Louisiana Purchase. The US also came out with a promise to stop impressment of sailors to uphold their honor. And the US came of the war with nifty (albeit impossible to sing) national anthem - as Fort McHenry did not fall (The Banners Still Wave).
Who Lost? Native Americans in the United States. Both sides used the Native Americans as fighters and promised rewards to the indigenous tribes. Both sides abandoned them after the War. Although Upper Canada did set a precedent for a better relationship between the Native population and the Canadians. Not good, but better than the other parts of the continent and the United States.